diff --git a/content/article/roksana.md b/content/article/roksana.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..753dec0 --- /dev/null +++ b/content/article/roksana.md @@ -0,0 +1,1489 @@ +--- +title: "The Art of the Revolution: The Online and Offline Perception of +Communication­­ during the Uprisings in Sudan in 2018 and 2019" +authors: ["roksanahajduga.md"] +abstract: The article deals with art from the Sudanese revolution in 2018 and 2019 +(the December Revolution). The focus is on the most recognizable and +widespread images from the uprising and their presence on the streets of +Sudanese cities and social media. The article shows how freedom of +expression exploded on the Sudanese streets after years of censorship, +suppression, and violations of freedom of speech, media, and civil +rights. Art and social media had significant roles in covering the +uprising. Issues related to the importance and value of art in +transmitting social discourse and dissent in a tightly controlled +society are raised. These issues should be the subject of wider research +on conflict and social media in Sudan. This article focuses only on a +small part of this vast and important topic. +keywords: ["Sudan", "revolution", "uprising", "street art", "social media", +"protests", "murals", "graffiti", "images", "iconic"] +--- + + +# Introduction + +This article focuses on the images, graphics, and photos circulating on +the internet -- often photographs of murals and graffiti from the walls +of Sudanese streets. I discuss how street art manifested the discourse +of public opinion in Sudan during the revolution and how social media +became a significant part of contemporary communication. Images from +social media conveyed by the international media represented the voice +of Sudanese people outside the country. I will show how social media +helped stage events, control activities, and back the official policy of +the Sudanese government to create a different narrative of events in +Sudan. This article engages with the question of how the reach of social +media platforms has changed the nature of political disobedience, and +how it provided new tools to overcome the repression imposed by the +regime and allowed quick, safe, and anonymous going out from hiding as +public opposition. + +**Methodology** + +In this study, I will use an analytical approach to examine articles and +social media concerning the 2018/2019 December Revolution in Sudan. +International media used several terms to describe the events that began +in Sudan in December 2018, depending on whether the events resulted in +fundamental social changes or just political change. In my +understanding, the events in Sudan should be called a \'revolution\', +because it was a dynamic and major shift of political power and directly +related to social changes. + +In this study, I employed various data collection methods, relying on an +extensive review of news articles, reports, and social media content. At +the same time, I conducted a comparative study on international media +and its interpretation of revolutionary art. I observed social media +reactions to threads related to the Sudanese revolution; spoke with +Sudanese people in Khartoum and the provinces; followed the art groups +created on the streets and online; analysed what happened to both street +and digital art after the protests ended. All of this was the basis of +the analysis of art\'s impact on the Sudanese people during the +revolution and more than two years after these events. How strong +emotional charge do they still have? For the article, I limited myself +to the artwork directly related to the causes of the revolution, its +most important events, and the participation of women, as they were +strongly represented on the streets of Sudan. Chosen street art was +posted on social media in the form of photographs, paintings, graphics, +cartoons, etc. I have chosen the most frequently reproduced artworks and +the creations that had the longest impact on public opinion, because +over time these have become symbols of the revolution. + +**Politics and Social-Economic Context** + +The concept of revolution and the struggle to gain freedom is not a new +phenomenon in Sudan. In 1964, the first president of Sudan, Ibrahim +Abbūd was brought down during the October revolution.[^1] In 1969, Jafar +al-Numayri overthrew the democratic rule of al-Azhari, and then was +removed from power by the popular movement in 1985.[^2] Omar al-Bashir +also came to power through a military coup in 1989.[^3] Many reasons +contributed to the revolution in 2018. As in 1964 or 1985, the political +and social situation was complex, and many of those problems are still +relevant in 2021.[^4] However, during the 30-year reign of Omar +al-Bashir, a new threat to democracy appeared while Sudan was becoming a +fundamentalist dictatorship, which led to the economic sanctions imposed +by the US and limited the inflow of foreign capital and opportunities +for economic diversification. Media censorship and the rise of Islamic +conservatism led to systemic changes dividing citizens into classes by +origin, sex, and religion. Progressive changes in the law allowed the +authorities to censor the citizens. In 2009, the Press and Publication +Acts was introduced. This law established the National Council of the +Press and Publication, which is responsible for regulating the media and +licensing the newspapers. This Council is not independent, and the +government appoints its members.[^5] During protests in 2019, 79 +journalists were arrested based on this law. In 2015, Law on Access to +Information was introduced to the public, a law restricting citizens\' +access to information.[^6][^7] This was a time of high censorship and +suppression. All of this meant silencing the political opposition and +any criticism. + +The independence of South Sudan in 2011, after the devastating Second +Civil War lasting 22 years, had a dramatic effect on Sudan\'s economy. +The Sudanese pound was devalued, and inflation rose to 70 per cent. +Before that, since 1999, oil fueled the economic growth in Sudan. There +was a period of relative prosperity, but the government missed this +\'oil boom\' and the opportunity to diversify the economy. Oil deposits +are mainly located in today's South Sudan, and with the secession of +South Sudan, Sudan\'s economy lost its main driving force and primary +income. In addition, US sanctions, corruption, and government +inefficiency limited any changes that would improve citizens\' lives. +The economic crisis aggravates the additional costs of fighting the +insurgents on the city streets and the continuous strengthening of the +security sector.[^8] All this resulted in currency depreciation and +hyperinflation. + +Thus, in the economic crisis, the government tried to recover by +drastically reducing social financing. In 2010, the activist Mohammed +Hassan 'Al Boushi' Alim, accused Nafi' Ali Nafi, the Former Assistant to +the President, of corruption and human rights violations.[^9] Enas +Satir, the Sudanese artist, refers to this event in her work explaining +the causes of the 2018 revolution. On her Instagram profile, she writes: +"(...) Al Boushi, when facing Nafi' Ali Nafi' (...), asked him: "*Tell +me about the bread, that is now the size of an ear*". Every word uttered +by Al Boushi is as powerful today as it was years earlier.[^10] The +reduction in the size of the bread referred to by Enas Satir was +associated with the reduction in government subsidies on basic goods, +followed by an increase in grain prices. At the same time, bakers were +forbidden to raise the price of bread. Having no other choice, they +began to reduce the size of the bread. Nevertheless, bread shortages +were not the main reason leading to the uprising in 2018. The reason +should be sought in the Sudanese economy's long-term deterioration. Many +years of Islamist military regime activities have allocated more funds +to the security apparatus than to economic development strategies. The +corrupt system hit all citizens and significantly increased living +costs, such as costs of food and gas. Deteriorating living conditions +spurred the development of a strong and conscious civil society. +Professionals began forming trade unions to mobilize action for better +pay and working conditions. The protesters demanded to overthrow the +ruling National Congress Party (NCP) and a president who had held power +for three decades. Without doubt, the lack of trust in the government +and mounting tensions due to no prospects, economic collapse, and lack +of access to reliable information, forced people into the streets. In +2013, 2014, and 2016, the police and the military brutally crushed the +strikes in Khartoum. + +In December 2018, the government, wanting to save the country from +financial collapse, gave up subsidies for bread and fuel, which caused +public outrage and started protests.[^11] These austerity measures were +initially introduced in smaller cities. The government believed that the +citizens from outside the urban areas would accept the measures without +protests because they wouldn't be able to mobilize. That is why the +protests started in Atbara and other smaller cities. Before the protest +moved to the capital, the people united in these smaller cities to +demand radical political and social change. Referring to these events, +artist Abdul Rahman Al Nazeer released '[The Bread +Loaf](https://bit.ly/2SAtQhO)' (Figure 1), inspired by Michelangelo's +painting 'The creation of Adam'.[^12] In the original, God stretches out +his hand towards Adam sitting in Eden. His hand has an outstretched +finger to transfer the spark of creation to Adam. This image has +penetrated pop culture worldwide, and the symbol of conveying the +'divine particle' or 'spark of life' is often paraphrased in visual +artworks. For Abdul Rahman, this scene takes place at a typical Sudanese +bus station -- a Sudanese pound in God's hand, which symbolizes the +spark of life necessary for human survival. In waiting for being +created, Adam's limp hand holds a bread loaf. + +The uprising started with the protests in Atbara, home of the Railway +Workers Union, the most vital trade union in Sudan and the libertarian +driving force that fuelled the 1964 and 1985 uprisings.[^13] Responsible +for the protests\' organized activities, the Sudanese Professionals +Association, established in 2018, follows the Union tradition.[^14] +Entry in Khartoum of a train from Atbara full of people chanting: "*The +dawn has come, Atbara has arrived*" has become one of the 2018-2019 +revolt symbols. This event is also a reference to the October 1964 +strike, when citizens from Kassala boarded their freedom train to +Khartoum to help oust General Abbūd from power (Figure 2).[^15] One of +the most recognizable images of the train is the art piece by Mounir +Khalil (Figure 3), which captures the joy of the people on the train and +the tense anticipation of the crowd gathering at the tracks.[^16] +Hussein Merghani (Figure 4) immortalized this moment in a painting +showing hundreds of people welcoming the train filled with waving flags. +Merghani's painting exudes strength, energy, and a sense of community -- +it reflects the atmosphere in Sudan during the revolution.[^17] + +Protests broke out in Sudan in December 2019, calling for the stepdown +of President Omar al-Bashir and his regime.[^18] In particular, large +numbers of young people, especially women, took to the streets. The +mobilization of people in Atbara began the pursuit of political change +for the entire nation. On December 19, girls from one of the schools in +Atbara marched in one of the largest markets in the city chanting +slogans against cutting subsidies. This was the result of increasing +grain and bread prices and thus increasing prices for school meals. The +girls were joined by others, and photos from the demonstration quickly +circulated on social media and sparked protests in al-Gedarif, Madani +(near Khartoum), Nyala (Darfur), and Port Sudan.[^19] Contrary to the +uprisings of 1964 and 1985, where trade unions played a leading role, +the uprisings in 2013, and especially that of 2018, were driven by +masses of young people and activists organizing protests and providing +up-to-date information. As far as the uprising of 2019 is concerned, the +protest had a unique character because they were a combination of +efforts by professional and social groups -- those that were first +mobilized in 2013, community-based structures and initiatives training +from the beginning in non-violent civil engagement. The Sudanese +Professional Association (SPA) showed extraordinary leadership skills, +however, it was the involvement of civil society that made it possible +to sustain a decentralized campaign based on non-violent protests. The +collaboration of local groups and trade unions (which always were a very +strong part of civil society organizations) was particularly noticeable. +SPA mobilized the people and actively participated in the activities +against al-Bashir\'s regime, as during previous revolutions in which +professional organizations took an active part. However, despite the +similarities, the situation in 2019 was different due to the +organizational structure. Decentralized activities in social media +influenced the spread of information and mobilization of people across +the country. Youth became more politically involved and joined +volunteers and professional associations in training and organizing +civil society during the protests. Even threats of arrest and attacks on +protesters did not stop Sudanese citizens from going out in the streets. +The dramatic situation in which the Sudanese found themselves and the +exhaustion of their trust in the government is shown in Khalid Albaih's +artwork (Figure 5).[^20] In his graphic, people are queuing for bread +and other necessities and this queue ends with a bomb. The graphic is +inspired by everyday life because people are forming a tight queue. +There is already a fuse lit at the end of the queue, illustrating that +citizens' patience has its limits, that the process of social awakening +has already started, and that there is no turning back. + +In the face of widespread frustration and anger, president al-Bashir +dissolved the government and appointed military officers in its place to +avoid stepping down from power. However, on April 10, a military coup +led to his resignation. History has come full circle, and al-Bashir was +removed from power the same way that he seized power 30 years earlier. +The protests continued as the army that forced al-Bashir to step down +was engaged in the Transitional Military Council (TMC), chaired by +General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, also known as Hemeti.[^21] Hemeti is +known in Sudan for his ties to The Rapid Support Forces (RSF), a +paramilitary group descended from the infamous Janjaweed militias. +Protesters demanded civilian participation in the transitional +government and the dissolution of TMC. Among the protesters were young +women seen on the frontline of the marches, women whose rights were +systematically violated by the Bashir regime. Female protesters have +been verbally and sexually harassed by the police and security forces. +This meant that each of the protesting women had to face great fear. +They had to be strong, and their strength emanated from the other women +sharing the struggle. Each woman shouting anti-government slogans led +masses of protesters behind her. + +The protests continued nationwide despite the increasing acts of +aggression from the armed forces. On June 3, the RSF cordoned off sit-in +protesters and used firearms. This attack on peaceful protesters in +front of the military headquarters in Khartoum resulted in the killing +of at least 127 people, and the attack is called the Khartoum +massacre.[^22] The RSF could not have acted on their own, and it seems +that the TMC had approved the attack. Khartoum was cut off from the +world by an internet blackout. Suddenly, all social media platforms +updating daily on the situation in Sudan went silent. There was no +possibility to use traditional media, television did not broadcast +information, and newspapers were suspended. Acts of violence escalated, +and shocking descriptions of attacks, shootings of protesters, and rapes +of women appeared in reports of witnesses calling for international +help.[^23] Increasing social tensions prolongated peace talks that were +completed with the signing of the Draft Constitutional Declaration on +August 4 by the Forces of Freedom and change -- consisting of the +uprising movement and the TMC.[^24] The agreement stipulated that a +Transitional Government of four civilians and three military officers +would oversee changes in the country during a three-year transition +period. The declaration did not contain specific economic reforms, +specific mandates to improve the rights of women and youth, any plan to +prosecute those guilty of war crimes, or a rigorous investigation into +the June 3 massacre.[^25] However, changes began with dissolving +al-Bashir\'s NCP party and the repealing of the Public Order Act[^26], +which targeted women drastically and restricted their freedom.[^27] +Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) was prohibited under penalty of +imprisonment.[^28] + +Strikes are over, but the Sudanese still fear that history will repeat +itself and that the military will try again to usurp power. +Democratization in Sudan has begun, but the elites associated with +al-Bashir's regime can slow down the process significantly. The failure +to include social and economic reforms in the constitution may +compromise the main postulates of the movement. The agreement also +avoids issues of war and peace, racism, and the marginalization of +minorities and refugees. However, solving such important and challenging +problems requires time and careful observation of the government\'s +actions, and Sudanese activists seem to be watching. Such a high civic +mobilization may allow the building of a strong democracy because public +opinion will hold both transitional and elected political leaders +accountable. The Constitutional Charter from 2019 established a +government consisting of a civilian cabinet, a Sovereignty Council, and +a Legislative Council. Decisions regarding domestic and foreign policy +are taken by Lieutenant General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the head of the +army and the chairman of the Sovereign Council, which bypasses civilian +leadership and calls for the dissolution of the government. Meanwhile, +citizens continue to demand a civilian government with full executive +powers. + +**Art beyond Divisions and Prejudices** + +The core of the uprising and the source of its strength was the equality +of all Sudanese people. No protests in Sudan had previously included +every ethnic group and social class included. The Sudanese have +emphasized that not only the people of Khartoum took protests to the +streets, but also the peoples of Kordofan, Nuba Mountains, and Darfur. +In a video from the protests, a woman chants: "*From Kordofan \[the +revolution\] has emerged after we have been hit by gunfire. This is a +government with no feelings... and the Nuba mountains, like Darfur, +their blood is very expensive. We will protect our land, oh farmer. Our +Sudan will be set free!*"[^29] Three decades of hate speech used on +generations of people was an easy and effective way to turn people +against each other. NCP promoted ethnic, religious, and social +discrimination and justified hatred and violence against minorities and +refugees. Government propaganda polarizing the country aroused distrust +between different ethnic groups while emphasizing the supremacy of +Sudan\'s Arabic-speaking Muslims at the same time. Ethnic identification +has been used by al-Bashir\'s regime for decades, dividing the country +and fuelling inequality. During the civil war in Darfur, the rebel +tribes were called by the government "Black Africans". In opposition to +them, the Sudan army was identified as Arabs.[^30] Attempts to implement +the same ethnical division on young people impacted the social response +and became a double-edged weapon. The opposite, as expected, brought +people closer under the slogan: "We want a country free of racism!" +(Figure 6)[^31] Young activists created a new quality of communication +and collective disobedience. No one felt excluded, and a concept of +peaceful demonstrations, so different from the terror used by the +security apparatus, appealed to all people. Perversely, al-Bashir\'s +rule formed a fertile ground for the unification of all Sudanese people +and pushed them to act as one. + +The long-lasting civil war in Darfur was used as a government excuse for +the deepening economic crisis and the stricter racist policy towards +non-Arabs.[^32] During the sit-in, protesters have often stressed that, +as a result of long-term government campaigns targeting ethnic +minorities, the division of society is a severe problem.[^33] Currently, +there are studies on the Arab Islamist Sudanese government inspiring the +conflict in Darfur.[^34] In 2018, the government accused ten young +Darfur men of planning a terrorist attack on protesters on the streets +of Khartoum. According to public records, they planned to use self-made +bombs. The plot was exposed in social media and showcased the same +race-based politics that the al-Bashir regime was known for. The friends +of the young Darfurians identified them as peaceful students rather than +terrorists.[^35] In response to such a despicable attempt to spark +ethnic riots, protesters called for unification with a special message +to the government: You racist egomaniac! We are all Darfur![^36] As a +counter-narrative to the regime propaganda, artists embraced Sudan's +cultural diversity and appreciation for uniting differences. One of the +murals by Mughira, a fine arts student, shows a series of figures +standing next to each other in traditional and contemporary clothes and +headgear -- symbolizing participation in protests regardless of origin +(Figure 7).[^37] + +Racism in Sudan is a complex issue due to the mixture of various +populations. Deep-rooted racism, discrimination, and intolerance are the +results of years of government propaganda emphasizing racial and ethnic +superiority. With the spread of the internet, propaganda moved to social +media. Pages responsible for spreading ethnic propaganda were often +exposed on Facebook during the revolution in 2019. Sudanese knew the +regime's methods and remembered many cases when fake news and hate +speech started violence between ethnic groups, especially in the +South.[^38] The exclusionary policy not only covered non-Arab tribes but +also women, who were the primary victims of the Public Order Act.[^39] +Coupled with physical and verbal abuse, women were gradually forced out +of society.[^40] Women were in the front of the protests from the first +day of the revolution; they became symbols of strength and muses for the +artists. 60-70% of the participants were women, so there is a reason why +this revolution is often described as the Women\'s Revolution.[^41] +Women inspired artists with their steadfastness when facing the +oppressive army officers, strength during the long sit-in and ululation, +kindness, and readiness to help the wounded and those in need. Female +artists\' perspective was crucial for showing women's everyday life +without beautifying it and of priceless value for understanding their +motivation and hopes. The artist Almoger Abdulbagey painted 17 images of +walking women in traditional and contemporary clothes -- reflecting +their ethnic diversity. These abstract figures painted with vivid +colours emanate power, as reporters who witnesses the marches and +chanting described the women's presence in the demonstrations.[^42] This +is an example of how fake news targeting ethnic groups spread by the +regime backfired during the protests. Art began to express the +opposition to the state propaganda, and this became a turning point in +the perception of social divisions by the Sudanese themselves. There is +no consent to racist propaganda in these artworks. + +On 8 April 2019, Lana Haroun took the photo of Alaa Salah in front of +the military headquarters in Khartoum (Figure 8). The iconic photo shows +Alaa Salah standing on the car's roof, with her hand up, leading the +chant and making the crowd cheer together.[^43] Alaa Salah was then a +22-year-old architecture student who advocated for women\'s rights. Her +photo became a symbol of protests in Sudan and sparked a new trend in +artworks focusing on women\'s rights, strength, steadfastness, and +constant motivation to get the people around them involved. Of course, +there are many photos and videos from this event. However, this photo +widely echoed around the world. Alaa Salah's white tobe is associated +with professions such as teachers, nurses, and midwives -- they adopted +it as their uniform and is still considered a modest garment for +educated and independent women. The thoughtful selection of Alaa Salah's +clothing makes reference to the tradition of Sudanese female activists +from the 1940s and 1950s, and the dress emphasizes the legacy of +women\'s fight for social justice.[^44] "*At a national conference in +1969, activist and first female member of Sudan's Parliament, Fatima +Ahmed Ibrahim, argued that women's rights were in keeping with Sudanese +traditions. As evidence of this, Ibrahim asked the audience to compare +her tobe with the western business suit of then-President Gaafar +Numeiri, who stood next to her*."[^45] The choice of the outfit was +undoubtedly a well-thought-out move and its message spread widely and +drew attention to the feminist movement in Sudan. This image of a young +student is still the most recognizable and most shared image in social +media of the 2018/2019 revolution. The only downside to the attention +the image attracted is that the focus was not on the words spoken by +Alaa Salah but only on her outfit. She was quoting the reaction of +Sudanese poet Azhari Mohamed Ali against the Public Order Act: "*They +imprisoned us in the name of religion, burned us in the name of religion +... killed us in the name of religion*".[^46] Lana Haroun's photo, +referred to as a symbol of the revolution, was repeatedly adapted and +changed by artists worldwide, sometimes in an optimistic or satirical +way, and sometimes in a more serious and sublime manner. For example, in +Ali Hamra's cartoon where Alaa Salah replaced the Statue of Liberty on +the pedestal, al-Bashir runs away in panic upon seeing her. Kesh Malek's +mural presents Alaa Salah standing among the flashes of mobile phones +commemorating the event with a slogan next to it: "*Liberty is not a +statue anymore. She is alive with flesh and blood"* (Figure 9). In an +impressionist manner, a painting by Fatima Abdullahi shows Alaa Salah +raising her arm in the air amidst a mostly female crowd of protesters, +holding their phones with a flashlight, which creates a magical glow and +gives the picture a nearly mystical expression (Figure 10). Of course, +Alaa Salah is one of the thousands of women taking part in the +revolution, standing up against uniformed men. However, this image +became viral, and Alaa Salah became an icon of the revolution, a symbol +of women\'s fights for equal rights. Thanks to her recognition, she also +became an activist raising Sudanese women\'s rights to the international +agenda. \"*Every revolution inspires another revolution,*" Alaa Salah +says in an interview, stressing that women will not hesitate to take to +the streets again when needed.[^47] A unique adaptation of Alaa Salah as +"The scent of the revolution" was created by artist Amado Alfadni +(Figure 11). He transformed Sudan's iconic Bint El Sudan perfume label +into a clever revolutionary message.[^48] A billboard with a photo of +Alaa Salah next to the sign: "My grandmother was a Kandaka." In a +powerful way, this picture emphasizes Sudanese women's strength (Figure +12).[^49] These words were also chanted during the demonstration, +empowering, and connecting generations of women walking together. On a +mural painted by artists Amir Saleh and Belal Abdelrahman it is stated: +"Our history returns back with Kandaka". It shows a woman wearing a +helmet and brandishing a sword for her enemies (Figure 13).[^50] +Sudanese artist Yasmin Elnour's Instagram account is Kandaka Khronicles. +The nickname is inspired by the Kushite queen. Her works beautifully and +harmoniously draw from Nubian traditions and combine ethnic aesthetics +with modern symbols. The art piece "Kandaka factory\" emphasizes the +participation of women in strikes (Figure 14). She traces the women\'s +ancestry back to the pyramids of Ancient Kush, where she placed the +factory producing all the brave Sudanese warriors. With the art piece +\'Women rights?\' Yasmin asks where are women\'s rights, and why are +Sudanese women second-class citizens? Yasmin Elnour writes on her +Instagram account: *\"A surprising status quo in the old stomping ground +of the Kandakes - Nubian Warrior Queens that fought off foreign powers +and steadfastly ruled the Kingdom of Kush. We cannot blindly accept +oppressive frameworks but instead carve a path of resistance, in the +glowing spirit of our female ancestors.*"[^51] + +A collage by Mahammed Mahdi shows women in white tobes and modern +clothes marching with their fists raised in protest and as signs of +anger. Above them, in the air, as if freed and freely soaring upwards, +there is a woman in white and next to her the inscription: "Long live +the women's struggle!"[^52] The artist emphasizes women's daily battle +for equality, free speech, and fair governance (Figure 15). + +Artist Alaa Satir focused on the socio-political aspects of women\'s +lives in Sudan. Her series of cartoons, \"*We are the revolution*\", +honours female protesters\' centrality in uplifting and sustaining the +resistance through their strength, courage, and commitment (Figure +16).[^53] In her graphic, she also refers to Sudan\'s Independence Flag, +which no longer represents the state. Gaafar Nimeiry replaced this flag +with the tricolor black-white-red flag with a green triangle at the +hoist in 1970. The Independence Flag, as seen on the Alaa Satir +graphics, resembled the flags of Rwanda and Tanzania, emphasizing the +racial diversity of Sudan and the joining of all ethnic groups, while +Nimeiry's flag derives from purely Arab aesthetics and refers to the +Sudanese Arab identity.[^54] Many protesters waved the Independence Flag +during the rallies. Its colors emphasize the combination of Arab and +African roots, which was also reflected in the people\'s outfits on the +streets. Like many young activists, Alaa Satir raised a very important +issue regarding identity and ethnicity, which was widely discussed +during the sit-in. For the first time, these matters were discussed +openly and emphasized that multi-ethnicity is what makes Sudan stronger. +In her works, Alaa Satir also shows the everyday life of protests and +the enormous influence of women who took the fight to the streets and +for whom giving up is not an option. One of the murals with the +inscription: 'We are the revolution, and the revolution continues' +portrayed women in traditional clothes with their hands raised and their +fists clenched in a gesture of victory (Figure 17).[^55] Another mural, +painted on a blue background, shows a woman with a raised hand in a sign +of victory with slogans next to this like: 'Freedom, peace, and +justice', 'Tasqut Bas' and 'Ladies, stand your ground; this is a women's +revolution' (Figure 18). The artist writes about the events in Sudan: +"*We are not here just to overthrow a political regime but the corrupt +social system that came along with it, that targeted women and used all +techniques to try and push them backwards!*"[^56] + +Mergani Salih chose a different form of expression by creating a mosaic +with thousands of photos of women protesting and suffering from an +oppressive government. With dedication, he searched the Internet to +choose the right photos to create a representation of Sudan\'s +embodiment. The character is deeply rooted in Sudan folklore -- Habouba, +grandmother and caretaker. He adopted a photo of an older woman in a +traditional headdress, with a calm expression on her face, curious eyes, +and a face bearing traces of work and time -- like Sudan itself, tired +and aged but still with a sparkle in the eyes looking to the future +(Figure 19). This video mosaic is available online and even now makes an +unforgettable impression on the onlooker.[^57] + +An anonymous female artist who adapted Banksy's \'Mona Lisa with rocket +launcher\' created a mural deeply inspired by pop culture. After all, +Banksy\'s London mural was referring to Da Vinci\'s 'Mona Lisa'. The +mural in Khartoum shows a figure whose outline resembles Banksy's 'Mona +Lisa', but her face is that of a Sudanese woman with a scarf on her head +and a rocket launcher in her hands (Figure 20). This simple image has a +powerful and direct message: beware of women's power. + +**Online Art** + +A new generation of young activists looks back to the Girifna movement, +founded by students in Khartoum in 2009, for inspiration. Their fight +shifted the protest onto completely different tracks than those known +from previous uprisings. Girifna volunteers organized just before the +elections that would take place in 2010, realizing that the society was +under-informed, and deciding to change this situation.[^58] Awareness +campaigns quickly expanded to organizing protests and publishing news +without censorship. Within a few years, these activists became the main +opposition force, and they are now visible on the political scene in +Sudan. Contemporary opposition groups significantly differ from +classical parties such as the National Umma Party, the Democratic +Unionist Party, and the Communist Party.[^59] The SPA distinguished +itself through their activities in social media, thanks to which +Sudanese people were allied to their demands. At the beginning of the +revolution, SPA formed alliances with many political parties. As a +result, 'The Forces of Freedom and Change' was formed.[^60] Very quickly +the SPA started expressing the voices of all Sudanese and published +daily on Facebook the public opinion on the current situation in Sudan. + +The activists arousing political awareness among young people and +manifesting their social needs come from various regions of Sudan and +even the diaspora. Thanks to such participation of young people, +revolutionary agitation was very effectively transferred to social media +and developed countless forms of expression. These tactics have so far +been entirely ignored by political parties, but young innovative +activists identify themselves without any problems with them. Elusive on +the web, they are free to report on events in Sudan and strengthen +international support for the protesters. Online communication has been +constantly changing over the years, adapting to the situation and +guaranteeing optimal and safest oppositionist conditions. NISS (National +Intelligence and Security Service) created cyber units called *jihadist +cyber units*. Members created false accounts on Facebook or Twitter to +disinform protesters, spread propaganda, or lure individual activists +into traps. These efforts did not go unnoticed. The SPA has created +applications for contact between members and a website that broadcasts +protests live. Social media became the primary source of information +about events in Sudan and the main communication tool for +revolutionaries. One can say that they even fuelled their activities. +The regime controlled the state media and for a long time provided only +propaganda to improve its image. At the same time, information was +published on Twitter and Facebook, simultaneously translated from Arabic +to English.[^61] Al Jaili 'Jaili' Hajo is an artist who has pointed out +the lack of information about the situation in the country in the media. +In his collages, he compares public television news with photos from +protests, showing how the reality on the streets of Khartoum is +diametrically different from government propaganda broadcasted on +television (Figure 21).[^62] In one of his collages, we see people +injured after the June 3 2019 crackdown. In a manner, such artworks +replace public media, which had no information about this event. + +The live-streaming massacre on 3 June 2019 was an unprecedented case +made possible by the courage of the protesters who shared photos and +videos in social media. Journalists producing "Africa Eye" for BBC have +collected several videos from the RSF\'s attack in a shocking short +documentary about the revolution.[^63] The documentary shows the +ruthless and planned actions of the militia and the terror of the +protesters. Live posts on Twitter reported a minute-by-minute escalation +of violence by the RSF. Photos showed people injured and killed on the +streets, overcrowded hospitals, and bodies pulled out from the Nile. All +this, seen almost live, confronted the world with what was happening in +Sudan in an unprecedented manner. Social media flooded with digital art +after these horrifying events. The artist Enas Satir created the series +'Kaizan and why they are bad for you' -- a compilation of drawings +explaining the origin of the word 'kaizan' (metal mug) and why the +Sudanese use it as a name for the government (see also below). This +series is aesthetically appealing and, for those from abroad, also very +informative. Enas Satir put a broader context on Sudan's situation in a +simple and clever manner.[^64] She writes on one of her drawings: "If +Sudan was a person, it would by now be gravely ill" next to a metal cup +('Kaizan') filled with blood (Figure 22).[^65] + +Under al-Bashir\'s rule, any political expression was forbidden, so +artists developed a way to spread anti-government content, in an +indirect direct way. However, during the uprising, the freedom of +expression replaced all restrictions, and artists finally could speak +their minds, and via social media they could reach people anywhere. +Visual and audio-visual forms of documentation attracted a larger group +of people and had a more significant impact on the audience than TV +news. Never has such an extensive range of information resources been +used to show the power of the people in Sudan. An online mobilization +aimed at identifying the aggressors who were attacking protesters, +another unprecedented method of exercising justice. Based on photos and +videos available online, a group of women recognized the RSF officers +and published their data on Facebook. For this reason, operations' +officers began to wear masks to hide their faces and prevent their +identification.[^66] + +There has been an unstoppable flow of drawings, cartoons, and memes, +fuelling the protests with bold images and intelligent retorts. This +uprising sparked a social, political, and cultural awakening that +intertwined with each other, creating an image of the marginalized +before pressing problems and underlining the power of social resistance. +In art, we can find traditional symbols and African indigenous motifs. +Also, the modern cultural references blend poetically with traditional +Sudanese aesthetics, creating bold and authentic artwork. Thanks to the +influence of tradition, so deeply rooted in Sudanese consciousness, art +reached everyone, regardless of age or origin. Artists found a way to +spread ideas and share their views in an accessible and universal way. +We can distinguish references to the history of Sudan, be it ancient +(the kingdom of Kush) or more modern (independence and earlier +revolutions). For example, a collage by Merghani Salih with a young boy +reciting poetry during protests superimposed on Kushite pyramids refers +to the ancient history of Sudan (Figure 23). It is an adaptation of the +photo entitled 'Straight Voice,' a powerful image made by Yasuyoshi +Chiba, who won World Press Photo in 2020, in the Photo of the Year +category.[^67] + +A famous slogan appearing on social media: \"Make Sudan Great Again\", +on the background of monumental buildings from the Kush period, is an +ironic comment on Donald Trump's slogan "Make America Great Again", but +it also emphasized the reliance on the powerful Sudanese ancestors +dominating in north-eastern Africa during the Kushite period (Figure +24). The people of ancient Nubia were captured as slaves by Egypt. Then +the power dynamics between Nubia and Egypt shifted, and Kush ruled Egypt +as pharaohs of the 25^th^ Dynasty (about 747--656 BCE). Thus, art +teaches history; the Sudanese cannot live in chains, and they are +capable to regain their freedom. Ben Jones, with his artworks, alludes +to modern times in world history. His graphics portray al-Bashir and his +military allies as Nazis (Figure 25). It is a powerful and terrifying +combination, but it is indisputably associated with the racist rhetoric +of the NCP authorities and the genocide committed in Darfur and +Kordofan. + +The global movement #BlueForSudan started in solidarity with Sudanese +martyr Mohamed Mattar, whose favourite colour was blue (Figure 26). An +artist known as Kandaka Khronicles, created a photomontage with a young +boy crying in a boat floating on a bloody river (Figure 27). It is a +homage to those killed in the crackdown and their families. The dark +blue backdrop honours Mohamed Mattar, the boy's endless tears remind of +the ongoing aggressions against peaceful protesters. Also, 'Blue Night' +by Mounir Khalil, an impressionist painting, shows people waving flags +against a starry sky background. It is a beautiful art piece full of +tranquillity and dedicated to those fallen during the uprising (Figure +28). + +A graphic by Jaili Hajo is a collage of a viral photo made on the +streets of Khartoum. In a pickup truck used by security services lies a +protester knocked over on the car\'s back but still holding the Sudanese +flag high in the air. On the car roof, covered by the waving Sudanese +flag, stands an enormous figure of al-Bashir (Figure 29). He is not +essential for the artist; his face does not even deserve to be shown; he +is only a symbol of oppression. The artist thoughtfully depicts the +sense of fear that people must have felt when faced with the armed +forces. We can notice an officer with a long truncheon with a split end +on the side of the car -- the truncheon was probably used against the +crowd.[^68] + +When the news broke out on social media that a NISS car killed the +3-year-old boy Muayed Yasir and seriously injured his 5-year-old +brother, people worldwide were shocked and mobilized against the +impunity of the security services in Sudan. Artists decided to react +too.[^69] The 'Hanz' graphic designer on his Twitter account condemned +this event and asked for public support to the mother of the two boys, +one of which was still in intensive care at the hospital (Figure 30). +Mustafa Alnasry created a poignant graphic of Bashir dancing on stage +during his '1 Million People March' organized to underline people\'s +support for the government. Alnasry shows the coldly calculated dance of +the President, posing as a kind leader, at the same time, ruthlessly +attacking peaceful resistants (Figure 31).[^70] + +Drawings inspired by pop culture reached the most remarkable popularity +online. For example, in the work of Ibrahim Jihad (known as hxmaside), +there is a reference to the Transformers' universe of the DC comics. His +graphic entitled 'Fallen' presents the symbolic metal cup, "Kaizan" (see +above) damaged by bullets, dropped on the ground or thrown away, thus no +longer needed (Figure 32).[^71] This art piece resembles a movie poster, +and as with any poster of that kind, we can find out that "Kaizan Fall" +was produced and directed by Sudanese people -- a very clever artistic +move. Another point of inspiration from pop culture is the reference to +the KFC restaurants: The slogan "Al-jidād al-iliktrūni" means "The +electronic chicken", and it is referring to people hired by the regime +to spread fake news on the Internet. In a satirical manner, the +revolutionaries created posters portraying Omar el-Bashir on a KFC +flyer, where KFC was replaced by KEC (Kaizan Electronic Chicken) (Figure +33).[^72] Who is 'Kaizan'? It is a traditional mug made of steel and +called 'koz' (singular of Kaizan). There are different theories on why +Sudanese started calling the ruling party \'Kaizan'. Alshaheed Alimam +Alhassan Albana, the Muslim Brotherhood founder, once said: "*Knowledge +is a sea and we are its kaizan*", which back then described Muslim +Brotherhood members but now refers to Omar al-Bashir and the National +Congress Party (NCP).[^73] + +Among the artists who commented on the events in Sudan were cartoonists. +Cartoons are sarcastic, often on the verge of absurdity or insult, but +their message refers often to tragic events. They have sometimes been +made without any inscriptions because the image itself is universal and +does not need any explanation. Khalid Albaih shows how General Mohamed +Hamdan Dagalo, also known as Hemeti, climbs on the corpses of the +Sudanese people to attain power (symbolized here as a throne).[^74] A +pile of bodies wrapped in shrouds is a very powerful and upsetting image +(Figure 34). In a violent manner, the artist addresses the civilian +casualties, which are part of the brutal rise of Hemeti to power in +Sudan. Hemeti, together with general Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, are +responsible for armed attacks in Darfur and took part in the war in +Yemen. Their rise to power was a blow for the Sudanese and, at the same +time, a call for mobilization to continue the struggle for democracy. +Sudanese cartoonist Boushra Al-Mujahid commented daily on the events in +Sudan. His images were always on point, clever, and understandable even +for foreigners unfamiliar with Arabic.[^75] The security forces were so +obedient that they even arrested a donkey that the protesters had marked +with revolutionary slogans. The event recorded by the phone of an +onlooker set in motion a wave of satirical cartoons ridiculing the +absurd attempts of the government to keep order on the streets. This +image transformed into all sorts of memes and cartoons to mock the +soldiers and express disrespect for their actions (Figure 35).[^76] + +Participating in sit-ins was associated with the risk of an attack by +the security forces using tear gas and rubber bullets and all kinds of +physical and mental aggression. A video available online shows a group +of protesters on one side of the street and police forces on the other, +throwing tear gas canisters into a crowd. We see the brave woman Rifka +Abdel Rahman taking a tear gas canister (which is about to explode) and +throwing it back. She was named 'Bumban Catcher' ('Bumban' means tear +gas in Sudan). Merghani Salih returns to these events in his art after +the revolution using 3D models. The series is called \"Living with +Revolutionaries\" and, as he describes himself, it was created to +capture the icons of the Sudan Revolution. One of these 3D models, +posted on Merghani's Twitter account, commemorated the courage of Rifka +\'Bumban Catcher'.[^77] + +**Street Art** + +During the uprising, alongside regular verbal and written communication, +a flood of sketches, murals, graffiti, and cartoons spread the word +about the revolution across Sudan. Art became a platform for +transmitting information in a highly censored environment, reflecting +social tensions, and forming political discourse. Slogans were +everywhere, on people's clothes or bodies, but mainly on all urban +structures. Sudanese people expressed their emotions on the building +walls, streets, public transport, fences, and even trees and animals. +Anti-government slogans appeared in every space that it was possible to +draw, even the smallest ones. The slogan "Tasqut bas" addressed to +el-Bashir and his regime can be translated as: "Just fall, that's all" +or "You'd better fall" (Figure 36).[^78] This slogan was repeated and +hash-tagged many times on different kinds of brochures and online +flyers. Almost equally famous was: \"Ash -shaab yurid isqat an-nizam", +which means: "The people want the regime to fall".[^79] It appeared on +the buildings and bus stops not only in Khartoum but in other towns and +even villages. Activists created the hashtags #BlueForSudan and +#KeepEyesOnSudan, which appeared widely both on the streets and online. +These hashtags attracted world attention on Sudan and kept up the +mobilization in favour of the revolution. #BlueForSudan represents the +favourite colour of the martyr Mohamed Mattar, who was shot protecting +two women during a police attack (see above). Another hashtag formed +during the protests was #Sudaxit. This alluded to Brexit and emphasized +that protesters identified more with African peoples than with Arabs and +demand the separation of Sudan from the Arab League.[^80] + +Due to the restrictions imposed on Internet and the censorship practised +in public television, the flow of information had to find other ways to +spread. The activists used brochures, postcards, or leaflets, sometimes +minor marks on clothes or on their bodies. That information included the +dates and places of protests, comments on current events, revolutionary +slogans or symbols, and glorifications of the martyrs. Women, for +example, used the henna painting (traditionally made before weddings) +and designed anti-government slogans or images on the hands or feet of +protesters (Figure 37 and 38).[^81] Also women wove revolution symbols +into their traditional clothes, adding victory signs or "Tasqut bas" +slogans to their toubes, which gained over the years representative +status as a reminder of feminist values fought by their mothers and +grandmothers.[^82] Older generations wore the white toube during the +previous popular uprising, which once again linked traditions with +modern times. + +The artists felt responsible for showing the emotions of the Sudanese +people and spreading the revolutionary messages. Such a message can be +found on a mural in Khartoum, which is an interesting adaptation of +[Eugène'a +Delacroix](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix)', 'La +Liberté guidant le peuple' (Figure 39). The accompanying text reads: The +revolution will go on. These artworks were an expression of despair and +hope. They were born out of a desperate need for change and the +necessity of speaking the truth. Street art, impermanent and unique, +could be removed at any time, and the artists who made it were in +constant danger of being caught and imprisoned. All of this was +evanescent. It emphasized the fragility of human existence and made it +even more inclined to reflect on the values of life and what is worth +fighting for. Assil Diab, a graffiti artist, known as 'sudalove', was +one of the many female Sudanese artists courageously creating art on the +streets of Khartoum.[^83] Diab painted murals and immortalised the +memory of Sudanese killed by security forces during the uprising. +Sometimes the families were taking part in creating the martyrs\' +portraits, which allowed them to add something personally to commemorate +their loved ones (Figure 40). The portraits are reminders of the loss +and sacrifice, of government brutality and their disrespect for human +life, and the price of freedom and democracy. + +One of the most high-profiled cases of police and intelligence services +brutality was the death of Ahmed al-Khair, a 36-year-old teacher from +Kashm al-Qirba. He was arrested at his home after the protest he was +taking part in and died on 2 February 2019, after a week of detention. +The police stated that the cause of Ahmed's al-Khair death was the +result of his poor health condition and was not related to his +imprisonment. However, the examination of Ahmed\'s body, first by his +family and then by pathologists, indicated death by beating and torture +to which he was subjected during the interrogation. The horrifying +details of the torture shocked and infuriated the public and Ahmed's +story was told nationwide.[^84] Sudanese still recall these events in +conversations, emphasizing that this was the turning point of the +revolution. There was nationwide mobilization and awareness that nothing +would stop the regime to silence the voice of the nation. Anger and +opposition to violence united the Sudanese people more than before. +Images of Ahmed were held by the protesters during the rallies, were +reproduced on the city\'s walls, and circulated in social media. When, +on 30 December 2020, 29 intelligence agents and police officers +responsible for Ahmed al-Khair\'s death were sentenced to death, a crowd +rallied outside the court in Omdurman. This event went down in history +as a moment of national mourning from which Sudanese rose resiliently. +After the revolution ended, Ahmed\'s story was taught in schools and +drawings of his face appeared on the walls of school buildings (Figure +41). These paintings were often painted over by the security services +but were always recreated by the people, determined and in strong +opposition to the regime\'s brutality and their efforts to censor +history. + +The 3 June 2019 massacre has left a deep mark on everyone who +participated in the sit-in and watched the live streaming. RSF militia +forces opened fire on unarmed protestants, beat many of them, and raped +48 women. In their works, Galal Yousif and Amel Bashier condemned +cruelty and rape as tactics for pacifying women (Figure 42). Following +these events, the African Union degraded Sudan's rights as a +member.[^85] The daily news about atrocities committed by the RSF is +reflected in the artists\' work following these events. The mural of +Galal Yousif, destroyed during the June 3 crackdown, shows people +shouting or screaming. Above them, huge hands try to silence the figure +in the centre. The inscription in Arabic on the side explains: "You were +born free, so live free."[^86] Yousif painted several murals in +Khartoum. One of them was placed under the bridge near the sit-in and +depicts screaming figures with horrified and distorted faces (Figure +43). The incomprehensible anxiety can be compared with Edward Munch\'s +'Scream'.[^87] + +Colourful murals, graffiti, sculptures, and installations within the +sit-in created a whole new space in the centre of Khartoum, a city +within a city. Space where people felt free, expressed their political +views with no fear, and experimented with new forms of artistic +expressions. It was an unprecedented phenomenon -- there has never been +such a concentration of artists from all over Sudan with different +cultural backgrounds covering various fields of fine art. Space within +the sit-in became an exhibition on a vast scale, with paintings, +graffiti, sculptures and installations, various traditional crafts, +regional costumes, poems, songs, and dances. + +In the face of a military crackdown, protesters opposed the aggression +in a very clever way. They collected military equipment and reused it +differently, peacefully changing its meaning and creating an utterly +different dichotomy between them and the government forces. They made it +possible to find a bit of humour in these difficult moments and +ridiculed the militia on the other side of the barricade. Such acts gave +people a different perspective; they began to let go of fear and +regained the dignity that was taken from them by years of oppression. +Empty tear gas canisters that were used to separate protesters have been +transformed into flower vases, containers, or electrical +connectors.[^88] There was an impressive increase of photos on social +media showing an endless creativity, among these one may pick the +\"tasqut bas" slogan made with tear gas canisters (Figure 44). The +protesters were utterly changing the functions and common perceptions of +military equipment, almost straightforwardly saying objects themselves +are not dangerous but only become so in the hands of dangerous people. +An example is a photo of a ring made from a bullet (Figure 45). Art, +therefore, did not embellish reality and did not avoid showing the +violence and terror in which everyday protesters functioned. + +In 2019, merchandise with symbols of the revolution started to appear in +the street markets. They were mainly produced abroad by the diaspora, +but some handmade products also circulated, albeit in a limited range, +also in Sudan: stickers, phone cases, bags or T-shirts on which symbols +and hashtags spread the message of the revolution (Figure 46). Street +art became popular and functioned as a reference to political ideas and +the current situation in the country. + +**Summary** + +The 2018/2019 revolution in Sudan was one of the most significant and +best-organized revolts in the Arab world in recent years. There were +large-scale protests, which showed social commitment and the +effectiveness of opposition by activists. The political engagement of +young activists changed the approach to protests in Sudan. They showed +extraordinary creativity and commitment, and thanks to that, they +reached vast sections of the society. Resistance groups, which have been +emerging since 2009, moved their activities to the streets, showing +their opposition through slogans, murals, and leaflets. Most of their +activities quickly spread online, where they joined forces with other +groups to create an efficient machine of resistance and for spreading +information without the fear of governmental censorship. Their actions +in the streets and online created a foundation for mass resistance, +which was used to the full during the protests in 2018-2019. + +This article shows the phenomenon of revolutionary art in shaping public +opinion, transferring information, political discourse, and calls for +mass disobedience. The photos of the revolution, murals, and graphics +are still circulating in social media and the events related to them are +still present in the consciousness of the Sudanese.[^89] Most of the +murals have been painted over by the police, but the ones in the +University of Khartoum campus have remained untouched. They were +protected from destruction by the people and can also be seen in +galleries online.[^90] These murals are examples of the strong emotions +evoked in the Sudanese people, even after the end of the revolution. +Their preservation can be understood as a tool for remembering, for +commemorating the loss of loved ones and the tragedies of many families, +raising people\'s spirits, and keeping resistance alive. + +The artwork that was created out of this revolution has a significant +role in civil disobedience. Sudanese people lived under constant +control, repression, and racism-based politics. The need to talk about +it loudly and be heard was unbearable. Art helped them express +themselves and brought people together for a common cause. It also +changed the information flow and created a dialogue with the government. +The protesters\' actions inspired the artists who, over time, mobilized +the people. It was a mutually reinforcing relationship that gave birth +to a freedom movement that emanated strength and bravery. Art became an +integral part of this movement as the artists raised awareness and +became a voice of the people. Art was inclusive, anti-conformist, and +empowering, and it was used as a censorship-free source of news and +expression. + +Street art and graffiti glorify people and their sacrifice, challenge +them during the revolution and after, and remain a constant memento of +the events in Sudan. War has many faces, but whether it is a cultural, +ideological, or religious war, it is associated with social change and +never leaves the country unchanged. In Sudan, during the uprising, this +change took place in the freedom of expression, greater self-awareness +of citizens and creativity in all areas of fine arts. Poetry, songs, +photography, collages, and street and online art during the revolution +in the blink of an eye responded to the ever-changing situation in +Sudan. Art inspired by actual events evokes instant connection and +understanding between the artist and the viewer. Apart from +anti-government slogans, art reflects the revolutionary reality. It +shows sadness and fear; there are visible references to police +brutality, excessive use of force, tear gas, ammunition, torture, and +mental and physical exhaustion of people. It is an incredibly moving +picture, without glorifying a peaceful uprising but considering the +dangers associated with it. Devoid of the romantic vision of the freedom +struggle in which all protesters happily return home. + +The events in Sudan inspired and still inspire artists. 'Kejer's Prison' +-- a short film by Mohamed Kordofani, in a moving way shows the social +tear during the revolution, especially among the military soldiers.[^91] +Many years of indoctrination or compulsion to obey the order have caused +the soldiers to turn against their fellow citizens. Everyone should be +held accountable, there is no doubt, but Mohamed Kordofan's film changes +a bit our perspective on the events. We want to hear their stories and +find out how they became torturers for those they should protect. +Abu'Obayda Mohamed, known as OXDA, in his graphic shows the burning +Khartoum, where the militia's attack on the sit-in on 3 June 2019 took +place (Figure 47). The graphic was created a year later with a +dedication to all the fallen and the shed blood on the dangerous road to +democracy. Also, in 2021, the anniversary of the June 3 massacre was +celebrated, emphasizing that the memory of these events is still alive, +and the victims of the regime's violence will not be forgotten. + +Even after the revolution, the role of the artists has not changed. On +the contrary, the artists have gained more momentum, and they are using +the newly acquired freedom. However, social and political change is a +long process, and Sudan\'s future remains unknown. The economy is +suffering from inflation and the continued devaluation of the Sudanese +pound. The locust plague and the flood disaster hit agricultural +production, and the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the health crisis +in the country. All this contributed to the deepening of the recession +in 2020 and 2021. On the other hand, the U.S. removed Sudan from the +list of states assisting terrorism and mediated the signing of a peace +agreement with Israel, after which Sudan received \$ 1 billion in +financial aid. The situation in Sudan will not change dramatically +overnight, however, the government has proposed fuel subsidies and tax +law reforms, as well as social protection programs. New fiscal and +monetary policies were introduced while renewing diplomatic relations +and attempts to stabilize the economic situation. Sudan is ready for +fundamental economic and institutional reforms and the first changes +have already been noticed in August 2021, when the inflation decreased +by 35 points. International media were talking about stabilization in +the country. + +**2022 update. The conflict in Sudan is not over.** + +In October 2021 the Sudanese army carried out a coup against the +civilian leadership. Prime Minister Adballa Hamdook and his cabinet were +arrested. Strikes broke out again and the actions of the army were +condemned. This situation provoked a reaction from the international +financial institutions supporting Sudan and forced the cessation of +financial aid totaling \$4.6bn. Furthermore, \$700m of financial aid +from the US has been blocked, along with the supply of grain to be used +in subsidizing bread.[^92] The cost of living began to rise +dramatically, and inflation soared. + +The Sudanese still protest against the military coup on a weekly basis. +Currently carried out by professional groups, students, and women\'s +rights groups. Protests still rely on non-violent tactics and the use of +social media is still crucial for wider media coverage. The rise of +local activism in Sudan is a phenomenon that continues to grow and reach +even larger circles. 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London: Hurst & Company, 2014. + +DABANGA, Radio. *Prosecution Denounces Call to Revive Sudan's Repealed +Public Order Law.* +https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/public-prosecution-denounces-call-to-revive-sudan-s-repealed-public-order-law. + +DAHIR, Abdi Latif. *Sudan's Protests Inspire Art, Graffiti Revolution*. +*Quartz*, December 7, 2019. +https://qz.com/africa/1664733/sudans-protests-inspire-art-graffiti-revolution/. + +DIAB, Ola. *Everything You Need to Know About the Sudan Revolution.* +http://500wordsmag.com/sudan-news/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-sudan-revolution/. + +EDITORS. *Cartooning for Peace*" +https://www.cartooningforpeace.org/en/editos/sudan-the-iconic-womens-revolution/. + +ELAMIN, Nisrin & ISMAIL, Tahani. *The Many Mothers of Sudan's +Revolution*" *Al Jazeera*, April 5, 2019. +https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/5/4/the-many-mothers-of-sudans-revolution/. + +ELHASSAN, Sara. *How Sudanese Art Is Fueling the Revolution*" +*OkayAfrica*, February 21, 2019. +https://www.okayafrica.com/young-sudanese-art-is-fueling-the-protest-revolution/. + +---------. *Sudan's revolution Isn't a Fluke; It's Tradition*" +*OkayAfrica*, June 14, 2019. +https://www.okayafrica.com/sudans-revolution-isnt-a-fluke-its-tradition/. + +---------. *Inside Sudan's Viral Revolution: What You Need to Know*" +*OkayAfrica*, June 21, 2019. +https://www.okayafrica.com/inside-sudans-viral-revolution-what-you-need-to-know/. + +FUHRMANN, Larissa-Diana. *#sudanrevolts: Contesting Power & Violence +Through Art*. + +https://shado-mag.com/opinion/sudanrevolts-contesting-power-violence-through-art/. + +GAAFAR Reem, SHAKWAT, Omnia. *Sudanese Women at the Heart of the +Revolution: African Feminism (AF)*" +https://africanfeminism.com/sudanese-women-at-the-heart-the-revolution/. + +HÄGGSTRÖM, Issraa Elkogali. *Art for the Revolution: How Artists Have +Changed the Protests in Sudan.* +https://kultwatch.se/2019/04/02/art-for-the-revolution-how-artists-have-become-key-for-the-protests-in-sudan/. + +HASHIM, Mohanad. *In Pictures: The Art Fuelling Sudan's Revolution.* +*BBC News*, May 5, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48126363. + +HASSAB, Afnan. *Sudan Uprising: On an Artistic Note.* +https://500wordsmag.com/art-and-culture/sudan-uprising-on-an-artistic-note/. + +HASSAN, Mai & KODOUDA, Ahmed. *Sudan's Uprising: The Fall of a Dictator* + +*http://journalofdemocracy.org/articles/sudan-uprising-the-fall-of-a-dicator/* + +HENDAWI, Hamza. *Sudan: An Artist's Tribute to Women Leaders of the +Pro-Democracy Movement*. *The National*, January 19, 2020. +https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/africa/sudan-an-artist-s-tribute-to-women-leaders-of-the-pro-democracy-movement-1.966191. + +HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH. *"They Were Shouting 'Kill Them'*". +https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/11/18/they-were-shouting-kill-them/sudans-violent-crackdown-protesters-khartoum. + +IDRIS, Amir H. *Conflict and Politics of Identity in Sudan*. Boston +Mass.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. + +\*AKWEI, Ismail. *Sudan's Protests Through Cartoons, the Daring Work of +Boushra Cartoonist*. +https://face2faceafrica.com/article/documenting-sudans-protests-through-cartoons-the-daring-work-of-boushra-cartoonist. + +KAMABRESSI, Farouck. To save its economy, Sudan needs civilian rule. Al +Jazeera, 2022. + +https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/opinions./2022/10/25/to-save-its-economy-sudan-needs-civilian-rule + +KARAR, Haytham. *Protesters Dismantling Modus Operandi of Sudan's +Oppressor*. https://sudantribune.com/spip.php?article67038. + +KORDOFANI, Mohamed. *\"Kejer\'s Prison\" - Short Film* ‏سجن الكجر - فلم +قصير‎." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Enyax1Dzj_g. + +KUWAIT TIMES. *Bashir's Overthrow Inspires Sudan Graffiti Artists*. +Kuwait Times. +https://news.kuwaittimes.net/website/bashirs-overthrow-inspires-sudan-graffiti-artists/. + +LAMENSCH, Marie. *Sudan's Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with +Alaa Satir*. Revolution. +https://www.themantle.com/arts-and-culture/sudans-artists-revolution-1. + +---------. *Sudan's Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with Assil +Diab*. + +---------. *Sudan's Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with Mounir +Khalil.* +https://www.themantle.com/arts-and-culture/sudans-artists-revolution-2. + +LATIF, Dena. *"You Arrogant Racist, We Are All Darfur"; Human Rights +Protests as Nation-Building in Sudan."* Human Rights Studies Master of +Arts Program, Columbia University. + +LICHTENSTEIN, Amanda. *Read the Scent of Revolution: The Story Behind +Sudan's Legendary Perfume Label Remix.* +https://www.scribd.com/article/406480542/The-Scent-Of-Revolution-The-Story-Behind-Sudan-s-Legendary-Perfume-Label-Remix. + +MURRAY, Elizabeth. *How Art Helped Propel Sudan's Revolution.* +https://www.usip.org/blog/2020/11/how-art-helped-propel-sudans-revolution. + +NORBROOK, Nicholas. *Sudan: Who Is Hemeti, the Butcher of the +Revolution?* The Africa Report, May 6, 2019. +https://www.theafricareport.com/13665/sudan-who-is-hemeti-the-butcher-of-the-revolution/. + +OSMAN, Muhammed & BEARAK, Max. *Omar Al-Bashir Exploited Sudan's Ethnic +Division for Decades. Now Sudan Is United Against Him*. The Washington +Post, January 19, 2019. +https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/omar-al-bashir-exploited-sudans-ethnic-division-for-decades-now-sudan-is-united-against-him/2019/01/19/a7b5d0a0-1851-11e9-b8e6-567190c2fd08_story.html?noredirect=on. + +POWELL, Brian. *Sudan Constitutional Declaration: Draft Constitutional +Charter for the 2019 Transitional Period*. + +REILLY, Katie. *The Iconic Photo of Her Helped Fuel Sudan's Revolution. +Now, She and Other Women Are Being Sidelined.* Time, October 30, 2019. +https://time.com/5712952/alaa-salah-sudan-women-protest/. + +ROBATHAN, Hannah & PEARCE, Isabella. *The Satir Sisters: Two Artists +Inspiring Change Through Illustration.* +https://shado-mag.com/do/the-satir-sisters-two-artists-inspiring-change-through-illustration/. + +SALIH, Zeinab Mohammed & WILSON Tom. *Sudanese Women Take Lead in +Protests Against Bashir.* Financial Times*,* March 28, 2019. +https://www.ft.com/content/8e185568-4976-11e9-bbc9-6917dce3dc62 + +Shirin Jaafari. "Here's the Story Behind the Iconic Image of the +Sudanese Woman in White." +https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-04-10/heres-story-behind-iconic-image-sudanese-woman-white. + +SIHA NETWORK. *Criminalization of Women in Sudan. A Need for Fundamental +Reform*. Strategic Initiative for Women in the Horn of Africa and The +Redress Trust. + +STAFF WRITER. *Sudan Just Criminalized Female Genital Mutilation in a +Landmark Victory for Women.* Scene Arabia*.* +https://scenearabia.com/Life/Sudan-Just-Criminalised-Female-Genital-Mutilation-in-a-Landmark-Victory-for-Women. + +ROYCHOUDHURY, Supriya. *The Art of Resistance: When Imagination Meets +Technology at Protests from India to Chile*. Scroll.in, March 14, 2020. +https://scroll.in/article/954091/the-art-of-resistance-when-imagination-meets-technology-at-protests-from-india-to-chile. + +THE OBSERVATEURS. *Brothers Create Mosaic Portraits of Protesters Killed +in Sudan's Revolution.* Yahoo Finance, March 12, 2019. +https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/news/brothers-create-mosaic-portraits-protesters-154135130.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAHL-VQ5xkU91oZq4s1TD6QLgcV61MXYnj6rZspRnJ8qHlz-gvCl52tx2qFlnKAb2Nbn2nyIyUg_hb9iZkbBs6r9FI_KEYHGTH034INGwx8IOF4neA0Mw_Yu6hT-WyMiHQAOg_39XhP-gg7wD3MnoyTcY11BnhMMffy4o6N4IAxaH. + +UK HOME OFFICE. *Sudan Opposition to the Government, Including Sur Place +Activity: (November 2018)*. 2018. + +WILDE BOTTA, Emma. *The Revolution Has Emerged: Sudan's Acute +Contradictions.* +https://roape.net/2019/09/05/the-revolution-has-emerged-sudans-acute-contradictions/. + +[^1]: BERRIDGE, *Civil Uprising in Modern Sudan, pp. 13-34.* + +[^2]: DESHAYES & ETIENNE & MEDANI*, Reflection on the Sudanese + Revolutionary Dynamics*. + +[^3]: BOTALITO, *Sudan Revolution: An Exploration Causes and + Consequences for Power Struggle and Regime Change.* + +[^4]: In 1964, the so-called \'Southern Problem\' became the cause of + the conflict. The increasing discrimination against the Christian + South of Sudan was the result of the policy of Abbud's regime. A + \'Southern problem\' became widely discussed at the time, which led + to clashes between students and the police at the University of + Khartoum. A very important factor depending on the conflict was the + government\'s ineffective economic policy and the rising costs of + living. Eventually, the protests led to the president\'s + resignation. + +[^5]: Any newspaper under this law could be suspended without any court + order and its employees arrested. + +[^6]: CIPESA, *Sudan's Bad Laws, Internet Censorship and Repressed Civil + Liberties.* + +[^7]: For more information see: *Sudan: Press freedom still in + transition a year after Omar al-Bashir's removal*, Reporters Without + Borders, 2020. + +[^8]: WILDE BOTTA, *The Revolution Has Emerged: Sudan's Acute + Contradictions*. + +[^9]: COPNALL, *A Poisonous Thorn in Our Hearts*: *Sudan and South + Sudan\'s Bitter and Incomplete Divorce.* + +[^10]: https://www.instagram.com/p/BtBLM5cFNG-/ + +[^11]: KARAR, *Protesters Dismantling Modus Operandi of Sudan\'s + Oppressor*: *"...the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the + government adopted austerity measures that resulted in cutting fuel + and bread subsidies. However, the adjustment plan has immensely hit + the extremely poor, estimated to be around 36.1 per cent of the + population. In December 2018, the inflation rate has risen to 72.94 + per cent, the second worst rate worldwide after Venezuela*." + +[^12]: ELHASSAN, How Sudanese Art Is Fueling the Revolution. + +[^13]: BERRIDGE, Civil Uprisings in Modern Sudan: The \'Khartoum + Springs\' of 1964 and 1985. + +[^14]: ELHASSAN, Sudan's Revolution Isn\'t a Fluke, It\'s Tradition. + +[^15]: Ibid. + +[^16]: LAMENSCH, Sudan\'s Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with + Mounir Khalil. + +[^17]: MURRAY, How Art Helped Propel Sudan's Revolution. + +[^18]: AFRICA NEWS, Sudan Protest Hub: Anti-Bashir Protesters Tear + Gassed in Omdurman. + +[^19]: HASSAN and KODOUDA, *Sudan's Uprising: The Fall of a Dictator,* + pp.97-100. + +[^20]: [HÄGGSTRÖM](https://www.kasperhaggstrom.com/) , Art for the + Revolution: How Artists Have Changed the Protests in Sudan. + +[^21]: NORBROOK, *Sudan: Who Is Hemeti, the Butcher of the Revolution?* + +[^22]: BOTTA, *The Revolution has Emerged: Sudan's Acute + Contradictions*. + +[^23]: HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, *"They Were Shouting 'Kill Them'"*. + +[^24]: POWELL, *Sudan Constitutional Declaration: Draft Constitutional + Charter for the 2019 Transitional Period*. + +[^25]: Policy and military attacked sleeping protesters and destroy the + site of the sit-in. People were shot and wounded by machetes and + their bodies were thrown into the River Nile. For more information + see: \"*Chaos and Fire": An Analysis of Sudan\'s June 3, 2019, + Khartoum Massacre*, Physician for Human Rights. + + Videos made by protesters during the massacre (contains disturbing + scenes): htpp://bbc.com/news/av/worls-africa-48956133 + +[^26]: The Public Order Law was proposed in 1989 and created as a set of + legal provisions from the Sudanese Criminal Law Act. A restrictive + public law that controlled how women acted and dressed in public, + violating their privacy and freedoms. Promotes discrimination + against women and limits their social activities. For more + information see: http://democracyfirstgroup.org + +[^27]: DABANGA, *Prosecution Denounces Call to Revive Sudan's Repealed + Public Order Law*. + +[^28]: STAFF WRITER, *Sudan Just Criminalised Female Genital Mutilation + in a Landmark Victory for Women*. Cartoon by Alaa Satir condemning + FGM with a sign: female body cannot be edited, available: + https://www.instagram.com/p/BjHpwZjFxD9/ + +[^29]: BOTTA, *The Revolution.* + +[^30]: Propaganda is not in the scope of this article, for more + information on this matter see: GOLDSTEIN, *Exploiting Darfur + Genocide for Propaganda*, Sudan Tribune, 2006. + +[^31]: OSMAN & BEARAK, *Omar Al-Bashir Exploited Sudan's Ethnic Division + for Decades. Now Sudan Is United Against Him*. + +[^32]: BOTALITO, *Sudan Revolution.* + +[^33]: LATIF, *You Arrogant Racist, We are All Darfur'; Human Rights + Protests as Nation-Building in Sudan,* pp. 54 - 67. + +[^34]: IDRIS, *Conflict and Politics of Identity in Sudan.* + +[^35]: CARMICHAEL & PINNELL, *How Fake News from Sudan's Regime + Backfired*. + +[^36]: BISHAI & ELSHAMI, *"We Are All Darfur!" -- Sudan's Unity Protests + Stand a Real Chance. Time for the West to Step up*. + +[^37]: HASHIM, *In Pictures: The Art Fuelling Sudan\'s Revolution*. + +[^38]: For more information see: REEVES. BENJAMIN, *Online fake news and + hate speech are fuelling tribal 'genocide' in South Sudan*, + http://theworld.org + +[^39]: For more information see: Global Gender Gap Report. + +[^40]: SIHA NETWORK, *Criminalisation of women in Sudan. A need for + Fundamental Reform,* pp. 8-13, 41-43. + +[^41]: SALIH & WILSON, *Sudanese Women Take Lead in Protests Against + Bashir*. + +[^42]: HENDAWI, *Sudan: An Artist's Tribute to Women Leaders of the + Pro-Democracy Movement*. + +[^43]: For more information see: SALIH, Zeinab Mohammed, '*I was raised + to love our home': Sudan's singing protester speaks up*, The + Guardian, April 10, 20919; REILLY, Katie, *The Iconic Photo of Her + Helped Fuel Sudan's Revolution. Now, She and Other Women Are Being + Sidelined*, The Times, October 30, 2019. + +[^44]: JAAFARI, *Here\'s the Story Behind the Iconic Image of the + Sudanese Woman in White*. + +[^45]: BROWN, *History Stands Alongside the Woman in the White Tobe*. + +[^46]: ELAMIN & ISMAIL, *The Many Mothers of Sudan's Revolution*. + +[^47]: REILLY, *The Iconic Photo of Her Helped Fuel Sudan\'s Revolution. + Now, She and Other Women Are Being Sidelined.* + +[^48]: + ## LICHTENSTEIN, *Read the Scent of Revolution: The Story Behind Sudan\'s Legendary Perfume Label Remi .* Exhibition Amado Alfadni work at the Sulger-Buel Gallery in London: https://thezay.org/amado-alfadni-kendakas-and-bint-al-sudan/ + +[^49]: ABDEL AZIZ, *The Third Sudanese Revolution Reinstates Women from + All Walks of Life onto the Map of Sudanese Public Life*. + +[^50]: KUWAIT TIMES, *Bashir\'s Overthrow Inspires Sudan Graffiti + Artists*. + +[^51]: https://www.instagram.com/p/Bqm6Ne1lxrP/ + +[^52]: HÄGGSTRÖM, *Art for the Revolution.* + +[^53]: DAHIR, *Sudan's Protests Inspire Art, Graffiti Revolution*. + +[^54]: For more information see: MONDESIRE. Zachary, *Race after + Revolution: Imagining Blackness and Africanity in the "New Sudan"*, + Middle East Political Science, 2020. + +[^55]: LAMENSCH, Sudan\'s Artists. + +[^56]: HÄGGSTRÖM, *Art for the Revolution.* + +[^57]: THE OBSERVATEURS, *Brothers Create Mosaic Portraits of Protesters + Killed in Sudan's Revolution*. + +[^58]: ANONYMOUS, *We Are Fed up! The Power of a New Generation of + Sudanese Youth Activists*. + +[^59]: UK HOME OFFICE, *Sudan Opposition to the Government, Including + Sur Place Activity: (November 2018).* + +[^60]: For more information about the structure and evolution of the + Sudanese professionals Association see: + https://www.arab-reform.net/publication/sudanese-professionals-association-structure-evolutioroles-and-coalitions-changes-and-future-prospects/ + +[^61]: BIOR, *Sudan\'s Social Media Deemed Major Player in Bashir\'s + Ouster*. + +[^62]: HASSAB, *Sudan Uprising: On an Artistic Note*. + +[^63]: https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-48956133 + +[^64]: ROBATHAN & PEARCE, *The Satir Sisters: Two Artists Inspiring + Change Through Illustration*. + +[^65]: ELHASSAN, *Inside Sudan\'s Viral Revolution: What You Need to + Know*. + +[^66]: GAAFAR & SHAKWAT, *Sudanese Women at the Heart of the Revolution: + African Feminism (AF)*. + +[^67]: https://www.worldpressphoto.org/collection/photo/2020/39605/1/Yasuyoshi-Chiba + +[^68]: FUHRMANN, *#sudanrevolts: Contesting Power & Violence Through + Art*. + +[^69]: https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/public-anger-in-sudan-capital-as-children-crushed-by-niss-driver + +[^70]: FUHRMANN, *#sudanrevolts.* + +[^71]: HASSAB, *Sudan Uprising.* + +[^72]: CASCIARRI & MANFREDI, *Freedom, Peace and Justice - a Glossary of + the Third Sudanese Revolution, p.18.* + +[^73]: DIAB, *Everything You Need to Know About the Sudan Revolution*. + +[^74]: EDITORS, *Cartooning for Peace*. + +[^75]: AKWEI, *Sudan's Protests Through Cartoons, the Daring Work of + Boushra Cartoonist.* + +[^76]: FUHRMANN, *#sudanrevolts.* + +[^77]: https://twitter.com/Merg_Salih/status/1401508418708545540 + +[^78]: CASCIARRI & MANFREDI, *Freedom, pp. 15-17*. + +[^79]: DESHAYES & ETIENNE & MEDANI*, Reflection.* + +[^80]: HASHIM, *In pictures: The art fuelling Sudan\'s revolution*. + +[^81]: FUHRMANN, *#sudanrevolts*. + +[^82]: ROYCHOUDHURY, *The Art of Resistance: When Imagination Meets + Technology at Protests from India to Chile*. + +[^83]: LAMENSCH, *Sudan\'s Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with + Assil Diab*. + +[^84]: For more information see: ERIC REEVES, *On the Brutal Murder of + Ahmed al-Khair of Kashm al-Qirba, February 2, 2019. + .* + Authors note: Some readers may find the description of events + distressing. + +[^85]: CARMICHAEL & PINNELL, *How fake news from Sudan's regime + backfired.* + +[^86]: MURRAY, *How Art Helped Propel Sudan's Revolution*. + +[^87]: ROYCHOUDHURY, *The Art of Resistance.* + +[^88]: CAPRON, *In Sudan, Empty Tear Gas Canisters from Protests Turned + into Art*. + +[^89]: The art of the Sudanese revolution was exhibited at the + University of London and Khartoum + +[^90]: http://sudanrevolutionart.org + +[^91]: KORDOFANI, *"Kejer\'s Prison - Short Film* ‏سجن الكجر - فلم قصير‎," + https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Enyax1Dzj_g. + +[^92]: KAMABRESSI, *To save its economy, Sudan needs civilian rule.* diff --git a/content/author/roksanahajduga.md b/content/author/roksanahajduga.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4fbc6f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/content/author/roksanahajduga.md @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +--- +title: RoksanaHajduga +--- + +# Biography + +Roksana Hajduga is working \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/content/issue/dotawo8.md b/content/issue/dotawo8.md index 75b6d7a..a9f4a8f 100644 --- a/content/issue/dotawo8.md +++ b/content/issue/dotawo8.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ --- title: "Dotawo 8: War in the Sudan" editors: ["henriettehafsaas.md"] -has_articles: ["honegger.md", "urosmatic.md", "tsakos.md"] +has_articles: ["honegger.md", "urosmatic.md", "tsakos.md", "roksana.md"] --- # Preface by the Editor