@ -257,7 +257,7 @@ as we will see in the next section.
According to David Wengrow, funerary rites were remarkably similar in
the Nile Valley from the confluence of the Blue and White Niles to
Middle Egypt during the 5^th^ millennium BCE. Deceased individuals were
Middle Egypt during the 5th millennium BCE. Deceased individuals were
placed in contracted positions on their sides, and often accompanied by
portable objects related to the decoration and ornamentation of the body
-- especially the skin and hair. This uniformity suggests a widespread
@ -266,7 +266,7 @@ way of life, which fostered a mobile, body-centred habitus. Among the
body-related objects were combs for the hair and cosmetic palettes used
for grinding pigments for painting the skin.[^48] A coherent cultural
group in Lower Nubia is difficult to distinguish at the beginning of the
4^th^ millennium BCE.[^49] The area was thinly populated and other
4th millennium BCE.[^49] The area was thinly populated and other
collective identities than ethnicity probably prevailed, such as
corporate lineage groups.
@ -279,9 +279,9 @@ Smith, in accordance with other scholars.[^53] The material culture and
cultural practices at these sites resemble the A-Group people more than
the Naqada people, and these peoples were likely the direct forebearers
of the A-Group people. I have therefore termed this earliest phase for
*the proto-phase of the A-Group* (see **Table 1**).[^54]
*the proto-phase of the A-Group* (see Table 1).[^54]
The earliest cemetery dating to the 4^th^ millennium BCE in northern
The earliest cemetery dating to the 4th millennium BCE in northern
Lower Nubia has been identified as the graves on the south-eastern
knolls of Cemetery 7 at Shellal -- the widest plain and thus most
attractive habitat in the First Cataract region.[^55] Between Shellal
@ -313,8 +313,12 @@ palettes is Wadi Hammamat, midway between the Nile Valley and the Red
Sea in Upper Egypt.[^62] The palette shapes were described as rough,
irregular, oval, oblong, and ovoid,[^63] which fit a Naqada I date.
**~~Figure 2: a) The mace-heads and axe-heads uncovered in Cemetery 7. From the left: grave 229, grave 230, grave 230, and grave 234. Photo from Reisner, The Archaeological Survey of Nubia, plate 63/d. b) The disc-shaped mace-head from grave 229 at Cemetery 7. Photo by Alexandros Tsakos. Courtesy of Nubia Museum, Aswan. c) The disc-shaped mace-head from grave 230. Photo by Alexandros Tsakos. Courtesy of Nubia Museum, Aswan.~~**
In Cemetery 7, four weapons or tool-weapons were found in three graves
-- two maces and two ground stone axes (**Figure 2**). The mace-heads
-- two maces and two ground stone axes (Figure 2). The mace-heads
were of the disc-shaped type and made of black and white/pink speckled
stone. The shape is similar to the disc-shaped maces of Neolithic
Sudan.[^64] Maces were specialized striking weapons, while ground stone
@ -328,7 +332,7 @@ used contemporary with Naqada I.
## Cemetery 14 at Khor Ambukol
Cemetery 14 with 23 human burials was located on the east bank at Khor
Ambukol -- *ca*. 9 kilometers upstream from Cemetery 7 at Shellal. The
Ambukol -- ca. 9 kilometers upstream from Cemetery 7 at Shellal. The
burial position was preserved for seventeen bodies, with 47 per cent
placed contracted on the left side and the remaining on the right side.
The orientation of the head appears random. The deceased were usually
@ -360,7 +364,13 @@ Naqada I.
Khor Bahan is a large khor coming down from the high desert on the east
bank ca. 10 kilometers south of Shellal. The alluvial fan below the khor
offered considerable fertile land, [^76] and Cemetery 17 was located
here (**Figure 3**). I have previously argued that predecessors of the
here (Figure 3).
**~~Figure 3: Cemetery 17 at Khor Bahan on the higher terrace of the khor, to the right of the white tents. The alluvial plain was already flooded behind the Aswan Dam as the palm trees would have lined the riverbank. Photo from Reisner (1910: plate 23/b). Colorized by cutout.pro.~~**
I have previously argued that predecessors of the
A-Group people used the highest terrace at Khor Bahan as a burial ground
during the proto-phase, while the Naqada people reused the
cemetery.[^77] Of the ca. 100 graves on the highest terrace, 24 human
@ -409,7 +419,7 @@ No specialized weapons were uncovered in these graves. However, six
graves contained flint blades.[^89] For the bodies where the sex could
be established, flint blades were found with males in four of five
cases, and the flint blades were deposited singly in five of the six
instances. One of these blades was also described as *"broad"*. These
instances. One of these blades was also described as "broad". These
flint implements were probably used both as tools and weapons --
so-called tool-weapons. I suggest that these blades were linked to
masculine practices and identity,[^90] since they mainly occurred with
@ -424,7 +434,7 @@ part of the proto-phase, contemporary with Naqada IC-IIA.
## Cemetery 45 on the Dehmit Plain
Cemetery 45/200 at Shem Nishai on the plain of Dehmit was located*ca*.
Cemetery 45/200 at Shem Nishai on the plain of Dehmit was locatedca.
32 kilometers south of Shellal. A total of 33 human burials were
published.[^92] Of the bodies with preserved burial position, 17 bodies
were placed on the left side and 12 bodies on the right side, so 59 per
@ -444,7 +454,7 @@ proto-phase.
## Summary
Burial positions and orientations are unreliable for determining ethnic
identity during the first half of the 4^th^ millennium BCE. The
identity during the first half of the 4th millennium BCE. The
standardized burial position among the Naqada people, contracted on the
left side with the head to the south, was only applied from Naqada II
onwards.[^95] The A-Group predecessors placed the deceased contracted on
